Civil Society
Context
Michel Bauwens:
The key innovation on the understanding of civil society, is that it is no longer the rest category when you substract state and market, but becomes productive through p2p-based self-organized productive networks. The becoming productive of civil society, directly, not indirectly, allows for cosmo-locally self-organized civic productive networks, to take center stage.
Definition
Bob Jessop:
" I define ‘civil society’ analytically as an ensemble of social relations characterized by the primacy of identities, interests, and values that cross-cut the logic of capital accumulation and other system logics — thus it includes ethnic, gender, regional, generational, and many other identities. These provide a site for contestation in the struggle for national-popular hegemony (as Gramsci indicates), a source of resistance to attempts at the colonization of civil society (or, in Habermasian terms, the lifeworld) by the logic(s) of one or another system (capital accumulation, statization, juridification, etc.), and the space for sociability outside specific system logics or even what post-modernists might call the free play of identities." (https://commonsblog.files.wordpress.com/2007/10/jessop-ntervew-on-sra-short.pdf)
Description
"The Inquiry’s definition of civil society includes: civil society as associational life, where people come together voluntarily for actions that lie beyond government or for-private-profit business, including voluntary and community organisations, trade unions, faith-based organisations, co-operatives and informal citizen groups; civil society as a ‘good’ society, grounded in values such as social justice, solidarity, mutuality and sustainability; and civil society as the public sphere, where people and organisations discuss common interests, deliberate solutions to problems, or find ways of reconciling differences." (from the Inquiry into the Future of Civil Society. Geoff Mulgan et al.)
Discussion
John Restakis (from ch. 6 of Humanizing the Economy):
"The term “civil society” has now entered – or more accurately re-entered – the vocabulary of common political discourse. It is a very ancient idea with roots in the political and moral philosophy of the ancient Greeks and the democratic society in which it was first conceived. The stress on the moral life that was a central part of Greek philosophy was always bound up in the concept of civic duty and the pursuit of the just society. For Plato, the ideal state was one in which people dedicate themselves to the common good, practice civic virtues of wisdom, courage, moderation and justice, and perform the social and occupational role to which they were best suited. Aristotle in turn, held that the “polis” – the city state - was an “association of associations” and the social reality that made political life possible. For these thinkers, there was no distinction between state and society and the idea of civil society as a political concept was profoundly influenced by the democratic institutions of Athens. It was made possible by the fact that individuals were not mere subjects of an absolute power. They were independent actors with the freedom to form horizontal bonds of mutual interest with others and to act in pursuit of this common interest. This was the essence of citizenship. Politics in the modern sense became possible. This link between civil society and democracy was to remain a defining feature of the term.
As the fortunes of democracy rose and fell over the ages, so too was affected the idea of civil society as a conceptual tool to explain the operations of society and ultimately, to change them. In the middle ages, with the rise of church and state absolutism, the classical notion of society as a civic body was suppressed as was political freedom. It was replaced by the authoritarian notion of society as the temporal extension of a sacred order that was eternal and unchangeable. Social relations were fixed. Politics was once again the exclusive prerogative of the powerful. The notion of citizenship was not to revive until the rise of civic humanism in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries when the idea of civil society was resurrected and absolutism was once again challenged. The rebirth of civil society accompanied the rise of republican cities like Florence and Sienna that in turn became centres of the Italian Renaissance. The idea then found its modern expression during the Enlightenment when philosophers and political reformers sought once again to limit the powers of state and church, in large part by defining society as the source of political legitimacy. It is no accident that the recent interest in civil society is also linked to resistance against authoritarianism - most dramatically in Eastern Europe before the fall of the Soviet block - and within the global justice movement against the rise of corporate power and the cooptation of the state by corporate interests.
In its narrowest modern sense, civil society refers to social organizations involved in the political process, for example political parties. But in its broadest and most accepted sense, civil society is the social impulse to free and democratic association, to the creation of community, and to the operations of social life, which includes politics. This is the sense of civil society that is used by writers such as Vaclav Havel. Unlike ancient times however, civil society is now distinguished from the state as it is from the operations of the private sector. Some writers also stress a distinction from the family as well.
For Havel and a long line of writers extending back to Aristotle, civil society remains the elementary fact of human existence. It is what makes human life possible. For Aristotle it was both the means and the end of human association as the pursuit of the good life, which is in essence a social life. And in this sense, it is the institutions that arise from civil society (the schools, the voluntary associations, the trade unions, the courts, the political parties, etc.) that provide the individual with the means to realize their own humanity and by so doing to perfect the whole of society in the process. The state is an outgrowth of this impulse.
It is fascinating to read Thomas Paine in this connection, particularly with reference to the raging debate surrounding the proper role of the state and the growing demands on the social economy to fulfill social and public services.
- “The great part of that order which reigns among mankind is not the effect of government. It has its origins in the principles of society and the natural constitution of man. It existed prior to government, and would exist if the formality of government was abolished. The mutual dependence and reciprocal interest which man has upon man, and all the parts of civilized community upon each other, create that great chain of connection which holds it together. In fine, society performs for itself almost everything which is ascribed to government.” Alex De Toqueville, visiting America in the late seventeen hundreds, famously attributed the vitality of the young democracy to the richness and diversity of its associational life.
Within civil society, a huge portion of civic activities are carried out by organizations created to provide goods and services through collaboration, by people acting together to realize mutual interests. They constitute that sector which is composed of non-profit and voluntary organizations, service groups, cultural organizations such as choral societies, charities, trade unions, and co-operatives. This economic aspect within civil society has also been described as the third sector or the social economy. The value of the economic activity generated by the social economy in the western democracies is huge - and growing. As a percentage of total economic force for example, Canada’s non-profit workforce is the world’s second largest."
A Critique of the Accomodationist Usage of the Concept of Civil Society
by Ellen Meiksins Wood:
"However constructive its uses in defending human liberties against state oppression, or in marking out a terrain of social practices, institutions, and relations neglected by the “old” Marxist left, “civil society” is now in danger of becoming an alibi for capitalism.
Gramsci’s conception of “civil society” was unambiguously intended as a weapon against capitalism, not an accommodation to it. Despite the appeal to his authority which has become a staple of the “new revisionism,” the concept in its current usage no longer has this unequivocally anticapitalist intent. It has now acquired a whole new set of meanings and consequences, some very positive for the emancipatory projects of the Left, others far less so.
The two contrary impulses can be summed up in this way: the new concept of civil society signals that the Left has learned the lessons of liberalism about the dangers of state oppression, but we seem to be forgetting the lessons we once learned from the socialist tradition about the oppressions of civil society. On the one hand, the advocates of civil society are strengthening our defense of non-state institutions and relations against the power of the state; on the other hand, they are tending to weaken our resistance to the coercions of capitalism.
“Civil society” has given private property and its possessors a command over people and their daily lives, a power accountable to no one, which many an old tyrannical state would have envied. Those activities and experiences which fall outside the immediate command structure of the capitalist enterprise, or outside the political power of capital, are regulated by the dictates of the market, the necessities of competition and profitability.
Even when the market is not, as it commonly is in advanced capitalist societies, merely an instrument of power for giant conglomerates and multinational corporations, it is still a coercive force, capable of subjecting all human values, activities, and relationships to its imperatives. No ancient despot could have hoped to penetrate the personal lives of his subjects — their choices, preferences, and relationships — in the same comprehensive and minute detail, not only in the workplace but in every corner of their lives.
Coercion, in other words, has been not just a disorder of “civil society” but one of its constitutive principles. This historical reality tends to undermine the neat distinctions required by current theories which ask us to treat civil society as, at least in principle, the sphere of freedom and voluntary action, the antithesis of the irreducibly coercive principle which intrinsically belongs to the state.
These theories do, of course, acknowledge that civil society is not a realm of perfect freedom or democracy. It is, for example, marred by oppression in the family, in gender relations, in the workplace, by racist attitudes, homophobia, and so on. But these oppressions are treated as dysfunctions in civil society. In principle, coercion belongs to the state while civil society is where freedom is rooted, and human emancipation, according to these arguments, consists in the autonomy of civil society, its expansion and enrichment, its liberation from the state, and its protection by formal democracy.
What tends to disappear from view, again, is the relations of exploitation and domination which irreducibly constitute civil society, not just as some alien and correctible disorder but as its very essence, the particular structure of domination and coercion that is specific to capitalism as a systemic totality.
What is alarming about these theoretical developments is not that they violate some doctrinaire Marxist prejudice concerning the privileged status of class. Of course, the whole object of the exercise is to sideline class, to dissolve it in all-embracing categories which deny it any privileged status, or even any political relevance at all. But that is not the real problem.
The problem is that theories which do not differentiate — and, yes, “privilege,” if that means ascribing causal or explanatory priorities — among various social institutions and “identities” cannot deal critically with capitalism at all. The consequence of these procedures is to sweep the whole question under the rug."
CIVIL SOCIETY’S HISTORY AS A CONCEPT — A TIMN-INFLECTED REVIEW
David Ronfeldt:
"Ancient Greek and Roman philosophers saw civil society (under different terms) as a layer rather than as a realm of society — a civilized mannerly intermediate layer of people located between the state on high and society at large below. In systems reducible to the rulers and the ruled, civil society were the people who agreed to follow rules and be ruled — a step above the rest, those uncivil unruly barbarian masses.
Civil society continued to be seen more as a layer than a separate realm in early Enlightenment writings too — first in Adam Ferguson’s An Essay On The History of Civil Society (1767) that first formalized the term, then in a host of writings by 19th century philosophers, especially those who favored the rise of liberal democracy. Most famously, Alexis de Tocqueville emphasized the importance of voluntary associations as the bedrock of civil society.
Meanwhile, German Idealism’s G.W.F. Hegel philosophized about civil society as a “system of needs” — almost a realm — layered between the family and the state. He also argued that civil society included “markets” — property-owning market-oriented economic actors and activities — as well as professional and voluntary associations. Karl Marx and his cohorts, though critical of Hegel’s take, likewise viewed civil society in mostly economic terms, analyzing labor and the bourgeoisie as civil society actors, though civil society was not their keen concern compared to capitalism. This market-including view persists in some current conceptions of civil society, but not to my liking.
Then, as the late 19th and early 20th centuries rolled on, political philosophers and social theorists increasingly analyzed civil society less as a layer between the state and society at large, and more as a distinct separate realm of society, independent of but interactive with the government and the market economy. This view gained sway as governments grew stronger and more separate from society as a whole, and as market economies developed into a distinct realm too, particularly in societies where liberal democracy was taking hold. Furthermore, the family was increasingly included as part of civil society.
That, more or less, is how civil society evolved into a realm (sphere, sector), not just a layer, that exists alongside rather than between society’s other major components — resulting in today’s conception of three separate coexistent realms: civil society, government, and market economy. (Sources include Jezar, 2018; Keane, 2009; Perez-Diaz, 2011; Stid, 2025; plus a look online at Encyclopedia Britannica, EBSCO, and Wikipedia)
Despite these shifts and clarifications over time, civil society remains an amorphous muddled elusive concept. It’s difficult to specify mostly because its organizational core — voluntary organizations — comes in so many varieties, and partly because variants exist in the realms of government and the economy too. As one philanthropy adviser lamented a decade ago,
“The charitable sector. The social sector. The voluntary sector. The civic sector. The nonprofit sector. The not-for-profit sector. The third sector. The independent sector. Civil society. Non-governmental organizations. Nonprofits. Charities. NGOs. …
“These organizations are devoted to causes as diverse as education, the environment, the arts, health and human services, food security, wildlife protection, humanitarian relief and research. They exist in virtually every town, and often are considered the bedrocks of their communities. …
“Yet, many insiders complain that the sector has little clout in Washington, DC and other halls of power. Representatives from this sector are often not at the table when critical community issues are discussed, and their interests often take a backseat to those of other sectors.
“One reason for this disconnect may be the confusion sown by so many names for one group of organizations.” (McClimon, 2018; also see Rieff, 2018).
Quite so. When concepts have debatable names and definitions, advocates are bound to have difficulty wielding them, making it easier for policymakers and business leaders to ignore them and persist with preferring the two-sector framework.
Even so, powerful economic actors have become careful not to claim their corporate entities and markets are part of civil society (though their personnel can be, when behaving as individuals for family and community benefit). The World Bank, a major funder of civil-society organizations (CSOs) since the 1990s, views civil society as “a wide array of organizations: community groups, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), labour unions, indigenous groups, charitable organizations, faith-based organizations, professional associations, and foundations” (Jezard, 2018). Likewise, multinational corporations, like those associated with the annual meetings of the World Economic Forum (WEF) in Davos, recognize they aren’t civil-society organizations, even though they can do a lot to support them (or not). Indeed, one of the WEF’s avowed purposes is to bring government, business, and civil-society leaders together in order to set future agendas — to the dismay of civil-society leaders who oppose the WEF’s efforts to corporatize civil society and ignore its grass-roots nature (Hughes, 2018).
To provide a fuller sense, here are a couple of quotes I like that reflect current views of civil society — the first from a liberal activist, the second from a conservative critic, both making good points:
“Civil society is the third leg of the stool of liberal democracy and is no less critical than the others [democratic government, and a free market economy]. Civil society is the realm of voluntary associations and activities in which people enter into reciprocal relationships with each other to develop and express shared values and take collective action to achieve goals they have in common” (Stid, 2025; also see McKnight, 2013).
“Whatever else it is, civil society is a mechanism which at once produces, maintains and manifests some basic and essential social goods. … Among liberal-democratic theorists, civil society commonly refers to a vast array of independent, groups, associations and institutions. … Examples of such groups can include neighborhood groups, churches and civic associations, labor unions, political parties, and the like. … So civil society is also where one learns the skills and habits of civility and good citizenship.” (Beem, 1996; also see Himmelfarb, 2012).
However, it’s annoying to read Wikipedia’s first sentence for defining civil society: “Civil society can be understood as the ‘third sector’ of society, distinct from government and business, and including the family and the private sphere.” There’s that “third sector” misnomer again, when TIMN informs me it’s the “first sector” of society (not to mention the “first leg” of the metaphorical stool of liberal democracy).
My review also tells me something’s amiss with Britannica’s base definition of civil society: a “dense network of groups, communities, networks, and ties that stand between the individual and the modern state.” For lots of individuals are already in that “network” — they are already members of civil society, which thus does not stand “between” them and the state."
(https://davidronfeldt.substack.com/p/rethinking-what-tribes-and-networks-1bd)
Book
* Book: Civil Society, 3rd Edition. By: Michael EdwardsPolity
URL = http://www.politybooks.com/book.asp?ref=0745679358
"Civil Society has become a standard work of reference for those who seek to understand the role of voluntary citizen action. Recent global unrest has shown the importance of social movements and street protests in world politics. However, as this lucid book shows, the power that people have to shape their societies is usually channeled through day-to-day participation in voluntary associations and communities: expressions of “normal” civic life beyond the headlines. This is the underlying story of civil society. This new edition explores issues that have developed rapidly in recent years, including the overlaps between civil society and the market in the form of social enterprises and “venture philanthropy,” and the increasing role of social media and information and communication technologies in civic interaction.
Different varieties of civil society in the Middle East, Africa and elsewhere are investigated in more detail, and case studies, data, and references have been updated throughout. Colleges, foundations and NGOs, policy-makers, journalists and commissions of inquiry Ð all have used Edwards’s book to understand and strengthen the vital role that civil society can play in deepening democracy, re-building community, and addressing inequality and injustice. This new edition will be required reading for anyone who is interested in creating a better world through voluntary citizen action." (http://www.politybooks.com/book.asp?ref=0745679358)
More Information
- Michel Bauwens: Towards a civil society-based ‘Common-ism’?
- Neal Gorenflo: Twenty Rules for Civil Networks
Reports and Books:
- Inquiry into the Future of Civil Society. Geoff Mulgan et al. Commission of Inquiry into the Future of Civil Society. Carnegie UK Trust, 2010
- Open Source for Civil Society Organizations: A decision making guide for civil society organizations
- Book: Reinventing Civil Society. David Green. 1993
Topics:
- Electronic Civil Disobedience
- Civil Regulation: rules created outside the statutory realm
- Civil Corporation, see the book: The Civil Corporation. By Simon Zadek.
- Civil Societarian
- Civil Constitutions: apparatuses which regulate the actions of the civil subjects who operate in a certain sector of activity
- Civil Humanism: a highly particular, and brief, period in Italian history, the first half of the fifteenth century
- Civil Society Organisations
- Civil Associations
- Civil Society-centered Socialism
- Civil Economy