Astropolitics
= "modern Geopolitics has outgrown its territorial landscape, encompassing the Spatial Arena". [1]
Description
Laavanya Jain:
"Astropolitics, in terms of modern geopolitics, refers to the study and analysis of the political, strategic, and policy-related aspects of outer space activities and their impact on international relations (Alonso-Trabanco, 2019). It involves examining the interactions, conflicts, and cooperation among nations in the context of space exploration, satellite technology, space policy, and the utilisation of space resources.
This term is derived from "astro" meaning related to space and "politics" pertaining to the governance and relations between states. Astropolitics comprises a wide range of topics, including space security, space law, space exploration, satellite communications, and the militarisation of space."
Typology
Aspects, by Laavanya Jain:
Commercialisation of Space
"Besides governments, various private companies such as SpaceX, Blue Origin, and Virgin Galactic have also joined the sphere of space exploration. Many of these companies have commercialised this sector by providing space tourism services and asteroid mining.
Redwire, a private space agency, is one of the pioneers in the field of asteroid mining. The agency’s primary focus is on developing technologies to extract resources from asteroids and other celestial bodies. Additionally, another private space agency, OffWorld, is developing a fleet of robots designed for asteroid mining and planetary construction. Their technology aims to create a scalable solution for resource extraction..
In 2015, the US government passed the US Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act (CSLCA), which states that US companies are entitled to maintain property rights of resources they have obtained from outer space (Blount, 2016). Moreover, other countries such as Luxembourg and Japan have also expressed their interest in the field of asteroid mining. The convergence of this common interest rightly points out the fact that in future, the central governments of varying nations may clash with each other for the celestial resources mined by private space agencies, thus, giving a more commercial and capitalist-oriented shift to the concept of Astropolitics.
Space Governance and Laws with a need for International Cooperation
As space activities grew more prevalent, there arose a need for legal frameworks to govern the use of outer space. This led to the development of international space law, which culminated in the creation of the Outer Space Treaty in 1967 (Treaty on Principles, n.d.). Also, with the recognition of a need to have a permanent space body within the United Nations, the United Nations Officer for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) was established in 1961 through United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1721 (XVI). UNOOSA's mandate emphasizes the peaceful use and exploration of outer space. It focuses on promoting international cooperation, ensuring the equitable benefits of space activities, and mitigating potential conflicts.
Several countries have collaborated on mega projects such as the International Space Station, which is a collaborative effort involving multiple space agencies from different countries. These include NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), ESA (European Space Agency), JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency), and CSA (Canadian Space Agency), amongst others. Such initiatives require a great deal of cooperation and collaboration among the states, thus, enhancing the need for proper space governance and cooperation laws.
Space Security and Militarisation
The military use of space is not new, yet it has developed and become more advanced today. Major powers, such as the US, China, and Russia, now have their own military units specialised in space operations, indicating that space has become a new big power competition .
It is believed that the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) project – often referred to as “Star Wars” – heralded the militarisation of outer space. As a comprehensive and complex space-based missile shield, SDI was conceived as a game-changer that could decisively alter the strategic balance of power in favour of Washington (Alonso-Trabanco, 2019).
In China, the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) established the Strategic Support Force (SSF) in 2015 to meet the new types of threats of the modern age. The SSF is a new type of combat force operating in near space, outer space, and network space. The organisation is divided into two departments; the Network Systems Department, which focuses on electronic warfare and cyber operations, and the Space Systems Department, which is responsible for executing the SSF’s space missions such as space launches, tracking, and surveillance.
On the other hand, Russia developed a mobile ground-based laser weapon system called ‘Peresvet’, which is said to be able to dazzle or even fight satellites in orbit. Russia also has great electronic warfare capabilities, such as jammers and communications satellites (Wehtje, 2023).
Considering these instances, one can gauge that national security has expanded to outer space as independent access to space is considered a strategic and critical asset in the modern era."
History
Laavanya Jain:
"The foundation of Astropolitics emanated from the ballistic missile-based nuclear arms race between the two nations during the Cold War era following World War-II, thus, leading to an unprecedented space race of the time. The Soviet Union scored a major victory in the early stages of the space race by launching Sputnik-1 on October 4th, 1957 (The Launch, 1957). Later, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to journey into space aboard the Vostok-1 spacecraft (Mahmud, 2002). This milestone solidified the Soviet Union's lead in space exploration, demonstrating their ability to put a human into orbit and safely return them to Earth. It was at this point in political history when the world began to witness an arms race beyond the terra firma, extending itself to the realm of space.
In the face of the Soviet successes, US President John F Kennedy subsequently delivered a speech in which he set the ambitious goal of landing an American on the moon (The Apollo, n.d.) before the end of the decade. This challenge, known as the "Moonshot," galvanised the American space program and led to the Apollo program (The Apollo, n.d.). Neil Armstrong's famous words, "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind," (The Apollo, n.d.) marked a monumental achievement in human history. Additionally, Both the US and USSR invested heavily in aerial and satellite-based reconnaissance programs as part of their overall intelligence-gathering efforts (Muszyński-Sulima, 2023).
The U-2 program (Muszyński-Sulima, 2023), initiated by the US in the 1950s, focused on employing high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft capable of flying at extreme altitudes. These U-2 aircrafts conducted overflights of the Soviet Union, gathering crucial intelligence on nuclear installations, military facilities, and other strategic targets. This initiative proved invaluable during the early Cold War years, providing critical insights into Soviet missile capabilities and even influencing pivotal events like the Cuban Missile Crisis. In the 1960s, the US introduced the SR-71 Blackbird program (Prisco, 2020), unveiling a high-speed, high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft designed to operate at near-invulnerable speeds and altitudes. This aircraft conducted reconnaissance missions over hostile territories, including the USSR, significantly bolstering US intelligence capabilities. In tandem with these aircraft-based efforts, the US developed satellite-based reconnaissance capabilities under programs like Corona and Midas (Muszyński-Sulima, 2023). This initiative involved deploying satellites equipped with advanced cameras to capture detailed images of the Earth's surface. The intelligence gathered from Corona and Midas proved instrumental in obtaining vital information on military and strategic targets, thus contributing substantially to the evolving landscape of Astropolitics.
The Soviet Union, during the Cold War, established a multifaceted approach to aerial and satellite-based reconnaissance, significantly influencing the dynamics of astropolitics. The MiG-25 "Foxbat," (MiG-25 Foxbat, 2023) originally known as an interceptor, also featured reconnaissance variants equipped with high-speed and high-altitude cameras. These specialised versions were employed for overflights, gathering vital intelligence on potential adversaries. Additionally, the R-12 "Dvina" missile (Soviet Missile, 2023), initially designed as a medium-range ballistic missile for offensive purposes, found a secondary role in training Soviet air defence units. It was used to simulate intercepting reconnaissance aircraft, contributing to defence strategies. The Soviet Union paralleled the US's efforts by developing satellite-based reconnaissance capabilities through the Zenit program (Muszyński-Sulima, 2023). This initiative involved deploying satellites equipped with advanced cameras and film-return capsules, akin to the US Corona program.
These programs, led by the US and USSR, significantly contribute to the understanding of how the Cold War rivalry led to the politicisation of space in the modern era."
More information
- Book: Everett Carl Dolman. “Astropolitik: Classical Geopolitics in the Space Age”
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