Living Systems Theory
Discussion
David Ing:
"Miller defines a living system as “a special subset of all of the set of all possible concrete systems” [p. 18]. They are characterized by 19 critical subsystems of a living system. The universe of concrete systems is organized into levels.
James Grier Miller:
"The universe contains a hierarchy of systems, each more advanced or “higher” level made of systems of lower levels. Atoms are composed of particles; molecules, of atoms; crystals and organelles, of molecules. About at the level of crystallizing viruses, like the tobacco mosaic virus, the subset of living systems begins. Viruses are necessarily parasitic on cells, so cells are the lowest level of living systems. Cells are composed of atoms, molecules, and multimolecular organelles; organs are composed of cells aggregated into tissues; organisms, or organs; groups (e.g., herds, flocks, families, teams, tribes), of organisms; organizations, of groups (and sometimes single individual organisms); societies, of organizations, groups, and individuals; and supranational systems, of societies and organizations. Higher levels of systems may be of mixed composition, living and nonliving. They include ecological systems, planets, solar systems, galaxies, and so forth. It is beyond my competence and the scope of this book to deal with the characteristics – whatever they may be – of systems below and above those levels which include the various forms of life, although others have done so. This book, in presenting general systems behavior theory, is limited to the subset of living systems -
- cells,
- organs,
- organisms,
- groups,
- organizations,
- societies, and
- supranational systems."
Source:
James Grier Miller, Living Systems, McGraw-Hill 1978